形状記憶効果にはマルテンサイト変態が密接に関連しています。マルテンサイト変態とは、固相中における結晶構造相変態の一種で、原子の拡散を伴わずに起こるため、各原子はお互いに連携して移動します。その結果、若干の体積変化を示す擬剪断変形を生じます。これが形状記憶効果の原動力となるのです。
一般に形状記憶合金に現れるマルテンサイト変態は、特に熱弾性型マルテンサイト変態と呼ばれます。鉄系合金は例外として、変態と逆変態の温度履歴差が小さく、数度から数十度となっています。さらに、マルテンサイト相と母相の界面の整合性が良く、マルテンサイト相自身が容易に低応力で再配列するため、永久変形の原因となる転位が形成されません。このような特徴が、形状記憶効果の為の必要条件の一つとなっています。
The shape memory effect is closely related to martensitic transformation. A martensitic transformation is a type of solid-state crystallographic phase transformation that occurs without atomic diffusion. Because diffusion does not take place, the atoms move cooperatively in a coordinated manner. As a result, a pseudo-shear deformation accompanied by a slight volume change is produced. This deformation serves as the driving force behind the shape memory effect.
In general, the martensitic transformation observed in shape memory alloys is specifically referred to as a thermoelastic martensitic transformation. With the exception of certain ferrous alloys, the temperature hysteresis between forward and reverse transformations is small, typically ranging from several to several tens of degrees. Furthermore, the interface between the martensite phase and the parent phase has good coherency, and the martensite variants can easily reorient under low stress. Therefore, dislocations that would cause permanent deformation are not formed. These characteristics constitute one of the essential conditions for the shape memory effect.
For simplicity, let us examine the operation of the shape memory effect using a two-dimensional crystal model.
First, when the parent phase shown in Fig. 1(a) is cooled below the Mf temperature, it transforms into the martensite phase shown in Fig. 1(b). In an actual three-dimensional crystal, 24 crystallographic variants of martensite are formed. Variants are martensite crystals that share the same crystal structure but differ in crystallographic orientation. In Fig. 1(b), two variants, labeled A and B, are illustrated. Each individual variant exhibits shear strain relative to the original parent phase. However, the variants formed during cooling self-accommodate in such a way that their strains mutually compensate. As a result, there is no macroscopic change in the specimen shape.
In thermoelastic martensitic transformations observed in shape memory alloys, the boundary between variants A and B can move easily under low stress. Therefore, in the martensitic state, the specimen becomes soft and deformable, similar to rubber. When an external force is applied, the favorably oriented variant grows at the expense of the other variant, as shown in Fig. 1(c), leading to macroscopic shear deformation of the specimen. When this deformed specimen is heated, all martensite transforms back to the parent phase through reverse transformation, and the specimen completely recovers its original shape as shown in Fig. 1(a). This is the shape memory effect.
Martensite generally forms upon cooling below the transformation temperature. However, even above the transformation temperature, the application of external stress can induce martensitic transformation. As described above, because martensitic transformation is driven by shear deformation, applied stress assists the transformation. Therefore, when stress is applied at temperatures above the Af temperature, the transformation proceeds directly from Fig. 1(a) to Fig. 1(c), forming only the favorably oriented martensite variant and producing macroscopic shear strain. At temperatures above the reverse transformation temperature, the martensite phase is energetically unstable. Thus, simply removing the applied stress causes the material to return from Fig. 1(c) to Fig. 1(a), reverting to the parent phase. Repetition of this process makes the material appear to exhibit elastic strains of several tens of percent. This phenomenon is known as superelasticity.